Beyond the City Centre Car Parks: Lessons from the Developed Cities

Although road pricing, time restrictions, priority bus lanes, and no car zones discourage the car usage in the city circles, construction of car parks never stop cars entering into cities and roaming for parking. Devoid of restrictions for car usage, many developed cities were compelled to employ high­ tech parking management to cope with ever increasing demand for parking. Without pursuing the same mistake, the developing cities can learn the sustainable solutions that have been suggested for the developed cities. Development of public transport as an alternative to everyone while restricting the car usage would be the best solution for a geographically constricted city with lot of archaeologically valuable sites like Kandy in Sri Lanka


Introduction
Cordoned off its three sides by the Mahaweli River and the other side by a range of hills, Kandy is one of the most attractive cities in Sri Lanka. With such topography, Kandy had been best served as an old-time strategic home for the kings since its founding in the 14 th century [1]. The townscape of Kandy had been rapidly and dramatically changed since 1818 under the British rule [1] with its development as an administrative centre and the largest commercial hub of the central province. Colonial and postcolonial growths of Kandy have also attracted many alien settlers and businessmen. Integrated with more than 150,000 [2] multicultural inhabitants of various social classes, this small city is obviously the second busiest in Sri Lanka.
Escalation of any city as an administrative centre or a commercial hub is always attracting many clienteles and employees towards the city centre from neighbouring as well as outlying localities. As a heritage city, with the temple of tooth and many other cultural fascinations, Kandy attracts many local and foreign tourists throughout the year besides of the mass gatherings during the holy procession of the August season. And as a scholastic city, with the Sri Lanka's largest multidisciplinary university and many other higher educational institutions, Kandy attracts many academics and students from the whole country. Obviously, me magnitude of the mobility and accessibility needs in the Kandy city is far broader than what is expected from the census records of permanent inhabitants. Those needs are vigorously diverse and conflicting with the people of. various social clusters as known in many Asian cities [3].
As described by Goodwin [4], a private vehicle is considered as a convincing symbol of wealth, comfort, and development and so to do without a car is seen as synonymous with poverty. So the revenues through the plantation industry and tourism are escalating the glory of many social classes while developing an inevitable car dependent lifestyle in Kandy through many decades.

From Public Transport to Cars
Without any effective postcolonial rail infrastructure development around Kandy, the existing rail services are mainly focused on intercity travel while few trains are serving local communities. Hence the buses operated by the state and private bus owners did form the backbone of urban public transport services in this city. However, unreliability, overcrowding, boarding malpractices, discourteous crewmembers, and reckless driving have resulted in a decline in level of service, comfort, and the interest of using buses, desperately pulling out every able commuter into wheels. This situation is also enhanced by the Government's poor attention on improving public transport services. So the private automobile has increasingly dominated the travel patterns during the last three decades. In contrast, there had been a little effort to build up the city with broader roads or bypass roads in this rolling terrain. This setting provides the obligatory surrounding for a city with congested roads so as we can experience in Kandy today.

City Centre Parking Problem
Growing numbers of vehicles entering into busy cities incessantly demand more parking spaces in the city centres creating traffic congestion.   Figure 1).

Parking Management: An Expensive Solution?
There were several studies on the extra rides associated with parking searches to divulge the waste in many developed cities. As revealed, rides linked to the unsuccessful attempts can make up as higher as 30% of the traffic of some main routes [8]. In some cities, such roaming may take up to 40% of the total riding times [9]. Hence the importance of controlling parking spaces has been defined and defended as an integral element for quite some time in developed cities [10]. Instead, the designers may obtain more sustainable solutions that have been proposed in the developed cities regarding the parking problem. Car parks always welcome cars and never discourage the cars entering into the cities and roaming for parking to stress the roads with congestion and pollution. So, any constructive proposal on sustainable roads must always stand on the idea of reducing car usage.

Towards Sustainable Kandy City
Having researched on the problems in congested cities, many authors have discussed on excessive car usage [3,13,16]. Promotion of public transport systems, congestion charging, promotion of nonmotorised transport modes, and area restrictions for cars are among the most discussed solutions. Therefore any future development proposals on the following would save the environment while improving the mobility in Kandy city.
Urban rail transport has received more attention as environmentally affable public transport systems in many busy cities [17,18]. Without many corridors to expand the motorways, a system of urban rail would be a great option for Kandy and the coordinated feeder services could make it as an efficient method of transport [19].
With the current weedy situation of Sri Lanka Rail [20], one cannot expect much on rail infrastructure development unless any funded plan in action. Still it is possible to optimise the existing infrastructure by increasing the frequency of local trains from the suburbs like Kadugannawa, Gampola and Matale. Introduction of new rail stops are necessary at densely populated strategic localities while improving the reliability and the quality of ride to convince for the switching commuters from wheels.
All kinds of intercity buses add extra congestion as they entered into the city and roaming for several hours before the departure. Those buses remain parked at roadsides and make extra trips on private businesses like fuelling or servicing if not returning empty. It is a common feature in Sri Lanka to have all bus terminals located in the city centres funnelling buses, passengers, and concomitant activities. Any development towards moving those bus terminals to city outskirts can abate the entrance of intercity buses into the city centre. It is worth to note the functioning of three separate bus terminals outside of the central business district (CBD) of Bangkok. Any development plan towards relocating bus terminals in Kandy would consider Peradeniya as an appropriate location for the buses bound for Colombo, Nuwara Eliya, Ratnapura etc. Alighting passengers can proceed to the city using either city buses operating in inner city routes or trains if the terminal is located next to the train station. Similarly, Katugastota and Tannekumbura could be the other locations for relocating bus terminals for the buses operating in the remaining routes. Construction of a road connecting Peradeniya, Katugastota, and Tannekumbura in the Mahaweli right bank would allow shuttle buses connecting those bus terminals. It is also necessary to proscribe the intercity buses entering into the inner city. Displaced bus terminals would automatically eradicate the need of larger bus terminals in the city centre while relocating many needy but disquieting businesses like unhygienic food stalls, service stations, and repair centres away.
Entrance of cars and other private vehicles into the city centre can be controlled with imposing an entrance fee based on either daily or monthly payment. As the entry corridors to the Kandy city are available through either bridges or saddles, it is easy to regulate the vehicle entries for the city limits. Developers can be encouraged on building outer city car parks, probably near the rail and bus terminals, for promoting park and ride. But promotion of park and ride is likely when level of public transport improved as an alternative for everyone [ There is a need of designating some roads as carfree zones for safe and free access of pedestrians while widening the other pedestrian walkways and making them free of street hawkers.

Summary
Cities like Kandy with geographical constrictions are always inflexible for chronological expansion of transport infrastructure while archaeologically important buildings and lands decisively stand for the right of ways of the existing roads. Shortages and the inferior quality of public transport and the boosts of personal wealth, on the other hand, pull out many commuters in to wheels in growing cities. The escalating numbers of cars always demand for road capacities and inner city parking despite of the unvarying infrastructure. Although parking spaces can entice car users for increased mobility for short spells, outcome at some larger cities are not that promising. The expensive management efforts on such cities are beyond the potential of a developing country. Without pursuing the same bloomer, the developing cities can learn the sustainable solutions that have been suggested for the developed cities. Development of the public transport as an alternative to everyone while restricting the car usage would be the best solution for a city. Developers are always willing to design projects based on their return rather than considering sustainable solutions. Under such circumstances, the legislators must be committed to promote and steer sustainable development plans rather than tallying tenure highlights.